Later Vedic Age refers to the period that followed Rig Vedic Age.

This period saw the composition of the three later Veda Samhitas, namely the Samveda Samhita, the Yajurveda Samhita, and the Atharvaveda Samhita, as well as the Brahmanas and Upanishads of all four Vedas and, later, the two major epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.

All of these later Vedic texts were compiled between 1000 and 600 BCE in the upper Gangetic basin. From the Himalayas to the Vindhyas, the Aryans occupied the entirety of Northern India during the time period represented by Later Samhitas.

Before 400 B.C., the Aryans had dispersed across the entirety of India. The most prominent of the new eastern kingdoms were the Kurus, Panchalas, Kasis, Kosalas, and Videhas.

The Aryans gradually migrated towards South India. It is believed that their migration to the south began around 1000 BCE, during the Brahmana literature period. They advanced steadily until they reached the peninsula’s southernmost tip in or before the fourth century B.C.

The famous grammarian Katya Yana, who flourished in the fourth century B.C., had knowledge of Pandya, Chola, and Kerala, among other southern nations. But in the south, Aryan colonisation was not as comprehensive as in the north. As the Aryans advanced in northern India, the centre of their civilization migrated eastward. The region between the rivers Saraswati and Ganga served as the centre of Aryan civilization.

Political Structure:
Growth of Large States:

Small tribal states of the Rig Vedic period were supplanted by powerful states as Aryan settlements expanded in the eastern and southern regions of India. Many prominent Rig Vedic tribes, such as the Bharatas, Parus, Tritsus, and Turvasas, became extinct, while new tribes such as the Kurus and Panchalas rose to prominence. The region east of the rivers Yamuna and Ganga that became the new home of the Aryans ascended to prominence.

Development of Imperialism:
With the emergence of large kingdoms in the Late Vedic Period, the struggle for supremacy between various states was frequent. In ancient India, the Sarbabhauma or universal empire ideal loomed enormous on the political horizon. The sacrifices of Rajasuya and Asvamedha represented the monarchs’ imperial dominance over their rivals. People were impressed by the increasing authority and prestige of the king as a result of these rituals. The Rig Vedic title “Rajan” was supplanted by the imposing titles Samrat, Ekrat, Virat, Bhoja, etc. These titles represented the expansion of imperialism and feudal concepts.

Origin of monarchy:
There were two explanations for the origin of monarchy. The Aitareya Brahmana explained the rational theory of kingship’s election by common consent. The Taittiniya Brahman explained the divine origin of kingship side by side. It described how Indra, despite his low status among the gods, was made their monarch by Prajapati.

Growth of Royal Authority:
The sovereign held absolute authority. He became an expert in all fields. He realised tariffs like “bali”, “sulka” and “bhaga”. The Satapatha Brahmana described the monarch as invulnerable to punishment and infallible. Sabha of the Rig Vedic Period passed away. The monarch sought the Samiti’s assistance and support in matters such as war, peace, and fiscal policies. There are references to the Samiti electing or reappointing a monarch on occasion.

Insofar as the monarch acknowledged the authority of the leaders of Aryan tribes, the authority of the government during the later Vedic period may have been more democratic. Despite the existence of popular assemblies, the king’s authority continued to expand due to the expansion of vast territorial states and the emergence of an official hierarchy.

Administrative Procedures:
The expansion of the king’s anger primarily reflected the expansion of royal authority. The monarch was assisted in his administrative duties by a group of officers known as Ratnins (Jewels). They included the Bhagadugha (collector of taxes), the Suta (charioteer), the Akshavapa (superintendent of gambling), the kshattri (chamberlain), the Govikartana (king’s companion in the chase), the Palogala (courtier) the Takshan (Carpenter), the Rathakara (Chariot marker) in addition to the ecclesiastical and military officials like the Purohita (chaplain) the senani (general), and the Gramani (leader of host or of the village).

Gramani was a civil and military officer during the Late Vedic Period. Gramani was the conduit through which the royal authority was exercised in the village. According to Frasna Upanishada, Adhikrita was the lowest ranking village officer. The monarch dispensed justice. Sometimes he delegated his judicial authority to Adhyakshas. Gramyavadin (village magistrate) and Sabha (court) decided cases in the villages. Crimes were punished severely.

The father was the chief of the family’s property. In the case of property inheritance, the law of primogeniture was applied. According to this regulation, the eldest son would inherit the deceased father’s property. Neither women nor sudras were entitled to property.

Socioeconomic Status:

Significantly more significant changes were progressively occurring in their society.

The Caste System:
The most significant transformation was the development of the caste system. In addition to the traditional four castes, numerous subcastes have developed. The Brahmanas and Kshatriyas arose as the two leading castes from the vaisyas, the general population. Although the vaisyas were superior to the sudras, their status was progressively declining. The Aitaraya Brahmana makes plain that vaisyas are completely dependent on the two higher castes. The Sudras were held in extremely low regard.

The Brahmanas were the priestly and intellectual class of the later Vedic period. The Brahmanas maintained a high standard of excellence and were well-versed in the rituals’ specifics. The kshatriyas were the society’s warrior caste. War, conquest, and kingdom administration were the primary responsibilities of this class. Some kshatriyas attained the position of Brahmana through their superior intelligence. They composed hymns, performed sacrifices, and challenged the Brahmanas’ preeminence.

Janak and Viswamitra, two Kshatriya monarchs, attained the status of Rishi. Long ago, the kshatriyas resisted the Brahmanas’ superiority and argued that the priest was merely a follower of the monarch. The Vaisyas engaged in commerce, manufacturing, cultivation, and animal husbandry. They are denied the privileges that the Brahmanas and Kshatriyas previously relished. However, the wealthier vaisyas, known as Sresthin, were highly esteemed at the imperial court.

The condition of the Sudras was appalling. They were required to serve the three other castes. They were invulnerable. They were not permitted to approach the sacred fire, perform sacrifices, or peruse the sacred texts. They were also denied the ritual of burning the corpse. The caste system’s structure became inherited.

Education:

A vast body of vedic literature and a highly developed intellectual life speak volumes about a well-organized educational system in the later Vedic Period. Students were required to study the Vedas, Upanishad, grammar, prosody, law, arithmetic, and language.

The pupils were sent to the Gurukula for their education following the Upanayana or sacred thread ceremony and initiation into the study of Buddhism. They were required to reside in the guru’s home and lead the chaste lifestyle of a Brahmacharin, whose primary responsibilities were study and service to the guru. The pupils received free room and board at the Guru’s residence. At the conclusion of their studies, the students paid guru-dakshina to their instructors.

Status of women:
During the Rig Vedic period, women relinquished their privileged position. All of their sacraments, with the exception of marriage, were performed without the recitation of Vedic mantras. Polygamy dominated the culture. Formerly conducted by the wife, many religious ceremonies were now carried out by the priests. She was not permitted to attend political gatherings. It became undesirable to have a daughter, as she was viewed as a source of misery. The practise of juvenile marriage and dowry became prevalent. The women lost their respected status in society.

Food and Clothing:
In the later Vedic period, rice became the staple sustenance for the population. Gradually, meat consumption began to decline. The slaughtering of cows was viewed negatively. Additionally, wool was utilised.

The Economic Situation:

Similar to the political and social conditions of the Aryans during the later Vedic period, their economic situation also underwent significant changes. Due to the development of the caste system, numerous occupations also arose.

Agriculture:

In the later Vedic period, Aryans resided in villages. In the villages, small peasant landowners were supplanted by large landowners who secured ownership of the entire villages. Agriculture was the main occupation of the population. The Aryans were familiar with improved methods for tilling the land, such as thorough ploughing, fertilising, and sowing with superior seeds. More land was converted to agricultural use.

Each year, the cultivator produced two harvests. Rice, barley, wheat, maize, and oil seeds were among the commodities grown. However, the cultivator was not without difficulty. Insect threats and hailstorm damage to agriculture had a devastating effect on kuru territory, forcing many people to relocate.

Business and Commerce:
The volume of trade and commerce had increased by leaps and bounds as civilization advanced. Both domestic and international commerce flourished. With the mountain-dwelling Kiratas, inland commerce was conducted. They traded the botanicals for garments, rugs, and skins. The populace became proficient in ocean navigation. No regular coinage was issued.

The coins in circulation bore the names “Nishka”, “Satamana”, and “Krishnala”. The unit of value for products was a bar of gold called “nishka” that weighed 320 ratis, which was also the weight of a satamana. A ‘Krishnala’ weighed one rati, which is equivalent to 1.8 grammes. There was a group of merchants known as the ‘Pani’ who dominated the market. The references to “ganas” or corporations and “sreshthins” are unmistakable references to the formation of guilds or corporations to facilitate trade and commerce. In this era, usuary and money lending were also prevalent.

Occupation:

The emergence of the caste system gave rise to a variety of livelihoods. There are references to moneylenders, chariot builders, dyers, weavers, barbers, goldsmiths, iron smiths, laundry men, bow makers, carpenters, and musicians, among others. The discipline of writing likely evolved during this time period. The use of silver increased, and silver ornaments were created.

Construction and Transportation:
The house contained numerous chambers, one of which was designated for the ‘Grahapatha’ fire, which was kept burning continuously. Wood was used to construct residences. The Taittiriya Aranyakas mention a unique form of dwelling known as a ‘Dhandhani’ (treasure house). ‘Patninam Sadan’ (women’s flat) is mentioned in the Atharvaveda.

The development of conveyance and communication accompanied the expansion of trade and commerce. Regarding modes of transportation, ox-drawn waggons, chariots for war and amusement, and a rough vehicle known as a ‘bipatha’ for transporting goods may be mentioned. Additionally, elephants and horses were used. Additionally, ships and vessels were used for transportation.

Spiritual Condition:
Throughout the later Vedic period, the religious spirit underwent a profound transformation. Religion was obscured by rites and ceremonies. During this epoch, new gods and goddesses arose.

New Deities:

The gods of the Rig Veda, such as Varun, Indra, Agni, Surya, and Usha, lost their allure. They were worshipped with less fervour by the populace. During the Later Vedic Period, new entities such as Siva, Rupa, Vishnu, Brahma, etc. appeared in the religious firmament. The majesty of the Rigvedic gods has been lost, but the Atharvaveda describes the omniscience of Varuna and the beneficence of the Earth deity.

During the Rigvedic Period, a number of less vital responsibilities were performed. During the Common Era, these tasks became prominent among the Common People. One of them was Rudra, who was already known as Siva. Rudra was soon venerated as ‘Mahadeva’ (great deity) and ‘Pasupati’ (lord of living creatures).

During this period, Vishnu, the preserver, achieved prominence. He occupied Varuna’s position as the most divine of the celestials. The objective of the rishis was to reach his “Paramapada” (highest step). In addition, the worship of Vasudeva was initiated. He was revered as the incarnation of Vishnu, Krishna Vasudev. Also created were demi-divinities such as Apsara, Nagas, Gandharbas, Vidyadharas, etc. This period also saw the commencement of Durga and Ganesh worship.

Rituals and Sacrifices:
During this time, the rites and ceremonies of the Vedic religion evolved and became more intricate. During the Rig Vedic period, Yanjas were a straightforward task that any householder could perform. In the later Vedic period, however, sacrifice became an integral part of worship. Now, the priestly class focused their efforts on uncovering the secret and mystical significance of the rituals and ceremonies.

People were adamant that gods must acquiesce to the sacrifice if it is performed properly. Vedic hymns were regarded as sacrifice-related miracles. The belief that Yanjas appeased the gods led to an increase in the number and diversity of sacrifices prescribed for every household. In actuality, every Aryan performed sacrifices under the supervision of the Brahmana cleric.

Virtue and Duty:
During the Later Vedic Period, a code of conduct was established. The Brahmins propagated the notion that “man is born with certain rinas or debts” that he must repay throughout his lifetime. He is obligated to repay his debts to his gods, rishis, munis, men, ancestors, and inferior beings. And he redeems himself from these debts if he worships the gods and performs Yajnas, studies the Vedas, engages in funerary rites and Sraddha, etc. All of these duties should be performed with selflessness. Prayers and good deeds were the first requirement for a good existence. One should refrain from committing crimes such as theft, adultery, and murder.

Religious Doctrine:
During the Late Vedic period, a new form of intellectual thought emerged. People who pondered the problems of creation, life, and mortality came to the conclusion that, beyond the universe, there is one ‘Brahma’ (one Unchanging Principle) who is the creator and controller of the entire order.

It is the universal soul or the Absolute that “dwells in everything and guides all beings from within, the Inward guide, Immortal.” After a person’s death, his soul passes into another body and then another, and this process continues until it is freed of all its imperfections and merged with the Universal Soul. This is the doctrine of spirit reincarnation.

Additionally, the Aryans believed in the doctrine of Karma. It states that all actions, whether positive or bad, produce their corresponding results. Souls must reincarnate and endure the consequences of their actions (Karma) from previous lives. There is also ‘Moksha’ doctrine. Moksha is a state of birthlessness and deathlessness attained when a soul is liberated from the cycle of births and deaths and merged with the universal soul. It was crucial for a man to achieve moksha. All of these are encapsulated in the Upanishads, which were written during the Later Vedic Period.

Ascetic Lifestyle:
As rites and ceremonies were not the only means of attaining success in this world or bliss in paradise, the later Vedic Aryans developed the concept of an ascetic ideal of life. Consequently, the concepts of Tapas and Brahmacharya (celibacy) emerged, leading to the same or even more significant outcomes. Tapa is meditation coupled with physical torments.

This asceticism was prevalent in the Epic period.

The Aryans of the Vedic period had attained the pinnacle of civilization. This age had achieved success in all fields. Philosophy, religion, science, and a code of conduct were all developed during the Vedic period, as were all other aspects of man’s existence that are deemed important. Throughout the centuries, Aryans served as the torchbearers of Indian civilization.